ÇATALHÖYÜK 1999 ARCHIVE REPORT

Micromorphology Archive Report

Mikromorfoloji Arşiv Raporu

Wendy Matthews

Abstract

A large number of micromorphological samples were collected in order to examine the microscopic nature of deposits. Microscopic analysis of fine water-laid silts and sands at the base of the deep sounding and KOPAL excavations, suggest this area was a delta at the edge of the Pleistocene lake. The lower levels deposits were very moist during early occupation at the site, and have remained so although there is evidence for some fluctuation in the water-table at the base of the mound.

Microscopic analyses enabled identification and study of stable and midden deposits, and probable fired lime-plasters and lime-burning, in Space 181. They are also contributing to study of uses and concepts of space in buildings in the South and BACH areas.

Özeti

Tabakaların mikroskobik yapısını tanımlayabilmek açısından çok sayıda mikromorfolojik örnek toplanmıştır. KOPAL kazıları ve derin sondajın dibindeki suyun biriktiği ince kum ve mil tabakalarının incelmesi burasının Pleistosen dönem gölünün kenarında bir delta olduğu önerisini gündeme getirmektedir. Erken dönem yerleşiminde toprak oldukça nemli idi ve öyle de kalmıştır, bunula beraber tepenin tabanında , tabansuyu ölçümlerinde dalgalnmalar görülür.

Mikroskobik analizler ahır ve çöplük tabakalarının, mümkün yanmış kireç-sıva ve yanmış kireç tabakalarının tanımlanmasını ve çalısılmasını mümkün kılmaktadır. Ayrıca, Güney ve BACH alanları binalarının, kullanımının ve nasıl yapılandıklarının anlaşılması açısından katkıda bulunur.

1. Introduction

In this report we examine microstratigraphic traces of uses and concepts of space within the settlement and landscape of Çatalhöyük, in the areas excavated in 1999. One of the principal aims in 1999 was to investigate preservation of organic and inorganic remains at the base of the mound, in view of the dramatic fall in the water-table and subsequent drying out of the mound.

In Section 2, we discuss the sampling strategies and methodologies applied in interdisciplinary analyses of depositional sequences at Çatalhöyük. We then consider results from inorganic and organic analyses briefly, as many of these analyses are currently ongoing, in Section 3.

The focus of the paper is on microstratigraphic and micromorphological analyses. The results considered are drawn from field observations, and microscopic analysis of 10 priority thin sections from the deep sounding in Space 181.

In Section 4, we examine microstratigraphic sequences in the deep sounding in Space 181. We consider evidence for the nature of the marl underlying the mound, and deposits from the first activities in this area of the settlement. We then focus on three of the principal deposit types encountered in the deep sounding, midden-like deposits, possible lime burning for plaster production, and stable deposits. At the end of this section we assess nature of preservation of organic remains, notable plant remains, bone and organic aggregates such as dung.

We discuss the nature of microstratigraphic sequences in areas of KOPAL palaeoecological investigations in Section 5, within buildings in the South Area in Section 6, and in BACH Area in Section 7.

In Section 8, current progress in analysis of thin sections from 1998 is briefly reported on. In Section 9, we discuss directions for future research, including ethnoarchaeology and development of field laboratory facilities.

2. Sampling strategies

2.1. Integrative interdisciplinary research

Samples for micromorphological and organic and inorganic analyses were collected from each of the three excavation projects at Çatalhöyük in 1999 (Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3). These investigations include the six month period of excavations in the South Area, excavations of Building 3 in the BACH North Area, excavations by KOPAL to the north of the site and coring between the East and West Mounds.

Many of these analyses are focused on detecting and interpreting variation in traces of activities and uses and concepts of space that are present as organic and inorganic remains in depositional sequences. Some of these remains may not be visible to the naked eye, but are detectable under the microscope. Others may only be detected by organic and inorganic chemistry and elemental analyses. Sampling strategies for each of these analyses vary according to research questions, nature and size of samples, and analytical costs and time required (Matthews and Hastorf in press). The specific questions relating to each sample and reasons for collection are recorded in the site and sample databases. Integrative interdisciplinary approaches are enabling analysis of complex multi-proxy data, and detection and consideration of both converging and contrasting lines of evidence in interpretations.

In 1999, 109 block samples were collected for micromorphological analysis in large resin-impregnated thin sections, and targeted scanning electron microscopy and elemental analysis (Table 1), at University of Cambridge and British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara by Dr Wendy Matthews. Within buildings, micromorphological block samples were collected at 1-2 metre intervals across floors in small plinths, baulks, and section faces at the edge of excavation trenches. Within the area of the deep sounding in Space 181, the complex sequence of midden-like, stable and possible lime-burning deposits, was sampled in a continuous series of micromorphological samples from or just in front of the main excavation sections, through a total depth of c. 4 metres of deposit. Additional micromorphological samples were collected from depositional horizons where there was marked spatial variation.

25 block samples were collected adjacent to micromorphological samples for controlled micro-sampling in the laboratory for organic and inorganic analyses, and are currently stored at Çatalhöyük (Table 2). Overlapping monoliths were collected by Professor Neil Roberts from the basal levels of the deep sounding for organic and inorganic palaeoecological analyses, each 50 cm in length (Table 2).

Smaller spot samples were collected at 50 cm intervals across selected floor surfaces for phosphate, elemental (inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy, ICP AES) and phytolith analyses, in three separate ziplock bags, each containing c. 10-50 grams of deposit. Archive samples of 250-500 grams of deposit were collected from each excavation unit, and are stored at Çatalhöyük, and can be sub-sampled for other future analyses.

A range of analyses is being conducted at the Department of Archaeometry, Middle Eastern Technical University (Table 3). These include phosphate and X-ray diffraction analyses by Professor Dr Sahinde Demirici and Ali Akin Akyol (MSc student); mineralogy by Associate Professor Dr Asuman Turkmenoglu; optically stimulated luminescence dating by Professor Dr Aymelek Özer; C14 dating by Professor Dr Hale Gökturk; and obsidian trace element analysis by Professor Dr Osman Yavuz Ataman. Elemental analysis using ICP AES is being conducted by Dr William Middleton, at the Universities of Wisconsin and Chicago (Middleton and Price 1996). Phytolith analyses are being conducted by Dr Arlene Miller-Rosen (Rosen this report).

Samples for organic residue analysis were collected from a range of deposits, for analysis at the Universities of Bristol and Cambridge, under the direction of Dr Richard Evershed (c. 20-50 grams in glass bottles). These analyses include total carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, and gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry. Many of the deposits selected for organic residue analysis include traces of yellowish orange amorphous organic staining from possible coprolites in stable and midden deposits, and ?food residues. Fragments of pottery and clay balls were also collected for organic residue analysis with samples of adjacent sediment (Table 3). Deposits in archive samples and blocks for micro-sampling may also be sampled in the future for organic residue and other analyses, including X-ray radiography.

2.2 Micromorphology methodology

In the field, depositional sequences for microstratigraphic and micromorphological analyses were first cleaned with an artist's palette knife to bring out the sharpness of the boundaries between depositional units, and the nature of internal bedding and orientation, distribution, size and shape of depositional components. The sequences were then photographed on film and as digital data, and drawn, either at 1:10 by the excavators, or at 1:5 in Building 17, by the micromorphologist.

Spot samples for microscopic analysis in the field laboratory were collected from each excavation unit selected for discussion during priority tours. These spot samples were sprinkled onto a standard geological glass thin section and mounted in clove oil before covering with a glass cover-slip. Although clove oil only provides a temporary mount, it is non-toxic unlike more permanent mounting media, and has a good refractive index. These spot samples were examined using an optical polarising microscope generously provided by the Geoarchaeology Laboratory, University of Cambridge, with objectives which enabled analysis at magnifications of x 40, x 100 and x 160. This method also provided a rapid means of analysing phytoliths in the field, without any extraction procedures. Collaboration with Dr Arlene Rosen in the study of these spot samples in the field laboratories was exciting, and furnished a range of interesting results and discussions related to priority tours.

Micromorpholgical block samples were cut out with a Swiss Army knife and wrapped tightly in tissue and tape, for transport to thin section preparation laboratories. In the laboratory they are impregnated with an unsaturated crystic polyester resin under vacuum for 24 hours, which then takes 4-6 weeks to harden. Vertical slices through the sediments are then cut, ground and polished into large thin sections, 13.5. x 6.5.cm of standard geological thickness (Guilloré 1985, Murphy 1986).

The large thin sections are examined, as hand held specimens for correlation with field drawings and photographs, then in transmitted plane and polarising light using large field stereo-binocular microscope, at low magnifications (x5-x80), and optical polarising microscope at higher magnifications of x40-x400. The components and microstratigraphic sequences are described using internationally standardised methodologies (Bullock et al. 1985, Courty et al. 1989). The archaeological significance of each of these attributes and approaches in interpretation are discussed in Matthews 1995 and Matthews in press.

3. Organic and inorganic analyses

All of the organic and inorganic analyses discussed above are currently in progress. Initial results from phosphate analyses, by Ali Akin Akyol and Professor Sahinde Demirci, show marked contextual variation in concentrations of phosphate. Results from ICP AES analyses, by Dr William Middleton, are also showing marked contextual variation. Data from these analyses are being plotted across floors and features within buildings, using GIS applications by Anja Wolle and David Small. The emerging patterns and interpretations are being compared to those from analyses of other bioarchaeological and artefactual macro and micro remains. We are currently waiting for results from organic residue analyses from Dr Richard Evershed, who is developing new techniques for extracting organic residues from prehistoric samples in which biomolecules may be more degraded.

4. Space 181 Deep sounding: microstratigraphic and micromorphological analyses

4.1. Strategy

Many sections through deposits were available for study and sampling during excavation of the deep sounding in Space 181, as there were no walls bounding deposits below dung rich deposits at the top of the sounding. This opportunity for study and sampling was due especially to careful planning and timing by the excavators, in particular Craig Cessford, and site director Shahina Farid, as excavation, photography, drawing, sampling and then shoring proceeded in sequence, through almost four metres of deposit.

Initial opportunities for study and sampling of deposits in Space 181 were available as Mellaart's excavation trench from 1960's was emptied one metre at a time, prior to this season's excavations and widening of the area investigated.

Micromorphological samples were collected in continuous series from the top to the bottom of this sequence. Many of these were collected in vertical, rather than overlapping sequences to cut down on the total number of samples and overall expense. The top of one block frequently sampled the lower part of a homogeneous deposit, whilst the bottom of the block above sampled deposits from the upper part of the same homogeneous deposit. Where depositional sequences were finely layered, overlapping samples were collected. Additional samples were collected from deposits with observable spatial variation. These included the possible lime burning horizons, and eastern and western areas of the probable stable area.

4.1. Natural marl and earliest human activities at Çatalhöyük

4.1.1. Natural marl

The natural marl exposed at the base of excavations was rapidly covered by water that seeped in after excavation (Farid and Cessford this report). As a consequence, it was difficult to examine the microstratigraphy of the marl in the field. Texture by feel analysis suggested the deposits comprised slightly sandy silty clay.

Examination in thin section has revealed that much of the slightly sandy feel is due to the presence of abundant shell fragments of medium sand size, c. 0.3 mm. The sequence of alternating lenses of slightly sandy silt loam and silty clay, suggests deposits were laid during fluctuating water-flow, perhaps in a delta at the edge of the lake. Similar thin alternating lenses occur just to the north of the site, in a thin section sample from the base of KOPAL excavations in 1997. Fine flecks of amorphous dark brown plant remains, c. 0.1-0.3 mm in size, with few preserved cellular structures are preserved in the thin silty clay lenses.

4.1.2. Unoriented aggregates

A layer of unoriented marl and heterogeneous brown and orange brown aggregates, 5 cm thick, which may have been disturbed by human or animal activity, overlies the sequence of water-laid deposits.

4.1.3. Brown layer

Much of this layer comprises brown silt loam aggregates similar to those in the underlying unoriented and disturbed aggregates. Deposits include traces of probable human activity, including charred deciduous wood, charred plant remains and burnt bone. These deposits also include yellow aggregates from possible omnivore coprolites or organic remains, such as food, and a basalt grain, which may have come from a grindstone. Some channels and chambers have silt-silty clay coatings from translocation of fine materials, from water movement within deposits, perhaps related to fluctuations in the water-table (see below).

4.1.4. Basal grey layers

Few discrete depositional units are detectable in thin section sample of the band of grey deposits that appeared relatively homogeneous in the field, c. 30 cm thick between the brown layer and the base of midden-like sequence. Many components, however, have strong parallel orientation and distribution, suggesting periodic accumulation and compaction. Deposits include abundant remains of human activity including charred wood, cereal grain and other plant remains; and burnt and unburnt bone. Yellowish organic aggregates are also present. The microstructure of unburnt bone is unusual and well preserved, coloured brown, rather than yellow (see below Section 4.5.2.2.).

4.2. Midden-like deposits

The bulk of the depositional sequence in Space 181 comprises multiple layers of midden-like deposits, with abundant bioarchaeological and micro-artefactual remains, which are critical to understanding the nature and range of activities at Çatalhöyük. Residues on floors within buildings are generally much sparser.

Major differences between depositional episodes are emerging from archaeobotanical and archaeozoological analyses (Hastorf et al. this report and Martin et al. this report). Archaeobotanical analyses suggest, for example, ashy deposits with abundant wood and diverse plant remains appear to represent discarded remains probably from hearths and ovens, whilst in-situ burnt deposits with very little wood, but abundant seeds and fruits, may represent discarded remains of food preparation and consumption burnt on middens (Kennedy and Fairbairn Priority Tour 20 July 1999, units 4824 and 4826).

The earliest midden-like deposits in thin section include abundant phytoliths, charred plant remains, herbivore dung, yellowish orange organic aggregates, melted silica from burning at temperatures above 650 C, calcitic ash, mineralised seeds, and burnt and unburnt bone and heterogeneous aggregates.

Some of the plant remains in thin section samples are clearly only partially charred, and include dark brown, or occasionally bright reddish brown or dark orange brown amorphous organic remains. By contrast, some of the building material aggregates in these early levels only have impressions of plant remains which have since oxidised and decayed.

A wide range of phytoliths/siliceous plant remains were detected during microscopic analysis of spot samples of deposit in the field laboratory. These were identified with the considerable help and experience of Dr Arlene Miller Rosen (Rosen this report). The phytoliths included remains of cereal husks, awns, reeds, sedges, and sponge spicules. Discussions of the abundance of charred and non-charred plant remains preserved in microscopic spot samples examined in the field, contributed to interpretations of the taphonomy and densities of charred plant remains in a range of archaeobotanical flotation samples. Identification of dung spherulites in spot samples also helped in discussions of whether or not charred plant remains were derived from dung, which at times can be problematic (Miller 1984, 1996). Observations on the presence of occluded carbon on siliceous plant remains in spot and thin section samples, are also helping detection and interpretation of traces of charring and burning, which are generally removed during standard phytolith preparation procedures. Possible starch grains were identified in Unit 4846.

4.3. Lime plasters and lime--burning

We are tracing two lines of evidence that suggest lime was burnt for use in plasters during the early periods of occupation at Çatalhöyük. The first line of evidence is related to the discovery of fragments of hard white plaster with smooth red or yellow ochre surfaces, in many of the midden and room fill deposits excavated in the South Area in 1999, re-deposited in Levels IX and earlier. The second line is related to the uncovering and excavation of a series of thick layers of white calcareous deposits in Space 181, some of which occur on top of scorched surfaces and may have been burnt in-situ, well below Level XIII. These layers of calcareous aggregates may represent some of the 'plaster floors' described by Mellaart in his report on the deep sounding, of which some he observed were of 'extraordinary hardness' not 'soft like those in the upper layers' (Mellaart 1963, 73).

By contrast, fired lime was not used in the manufacture of plasters on walls and floors in the later levels at Çatalhöyük, in areas currently investigated from Level X. These plasters were made from unfired highly calcareous silty clays, which occur naturally within 5km of the site (Matthews et al. 1996; Koppelson n.d).

4.3.1. Current analyses of possible fired lime plaster fragments from 1999 season

The plaster fragments discovered in 1999 have, as yet, only been analysed in the field, and in preliminary analyses in thin section. Future analyses will include X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The plaster fragments examined in the field are c. 3 - 10 mm thick, and c. 1 - 5 cm2 in size. The fragments are very durable and hard. They are very resistant to crushing, and survived saturation with water and handling during wet-sieving and flotation procedures. This hardness and resistance to dissolution in water, were the first attributes that immediately suggested to me that these plasters may be made from re-hydrated fired lime. The fragments also resembled, to the naked -eye, fragments of hard fired plaster with red and yellow ochre surfaces from the large possible ritual complex Aşıklı Höyük, which I had sampled and analysed in 1997 (Matthews 1998b).

Small aggregates of earlier plasters with red and yellow ochre are embedded in the fabric of many of the plaster fragments examined in the field and in thin section at Çatalhöyük. This strongly suggests that earlier plasters were often stripped from their original setting and re-used in later plasters. This may have been for both symbolic reasons, empowering or subsuming meanings in later plasters, and/or for more practical reasons, re-using the concentrated source of lime, either pre- or post-firing, perhaps as a temper. Kingery et al. note 'After slaking the fired quicklime with water to form hydrated lime, the rather expensive and difficult-to-prepare paste is mixed with sand, ground limestone, or other aggregate filler (temper) material, both to increase the strength of the product and to extend the amount of mortar or stucco made from a given amount of slaked lime.' (1988, 221). Re-use of plasters, by stripping them from their original context and mixing with materials of new plasters, has been observed in the manufacture of a range of later soft lime wall and floor plasters, as well as loamy mud plasters, throughout the site.

None of the fragments of possible fired-lime plaster were found in-situ. All of them came from midden and room fill deposits. Ian Hodder observed that the underside of the plasters is very irregular, suggesting the plasters were applied to floors, rather than walls. He also noted Mellaart's observation that 'Two rooms show parts of the floor covered with red-painted lime plaster on a base of pebbles a hard lime plaster floor on top of pebbles ', in Levels XI and XII (Mellaart 1965, 169, Figure 2).

4.3.2. Occurrence of lime plasters in the ancient Near East

Fired lime was used in the production of plasters on a range of Aceramic Neolithic sites in the ancient Near East (Frierman 1971; Garfinkel 1987; Gourdin and Kingery 1975; Kingery et al. 1988; Thuesen and Gwodz 1982). It was used in the manufacture of floor plasters at sites such as Çayönü and Aşıklı Höyük in Turkey, as well as plasters moulded onto skulls at Jericho (Goren et al. in press) and statues at Ain Ghazal (Tubb 1985; Rollefson 1990) in the Levant. Kingery reports that the earliest currently known occurrence of fired lime is in early Natufian levels at Hayonim Cave (10,400-10,000BC). Fired lime plasters are generally more durable and water-resistant than mud plasters. Lime plaster is made by heating limestone or sources of lime (CaCO3) to between c. 650-900 C to form quicklime (CaO), which must be soaked in water to form slaked lime. The slaked lime paste after drying and standing in air reacts with the atmosphere to form the carbonate, CaCO3 (Frierman 1971, 213; Kingery et al. 1988, 221). Surface burnishing may enhance durability, water-proofing, aesthetic appearance of floors and relate to preparation rituals and meaning. Application of red and yellow ochres similarly, may be for aesthetic and symbolic reasons, but is also known to enhance durability and water proofing of surface.

It is likely, that the multiple layers of thin plaster at Çatalhöyük examined by Kingery are not made from fired-lime, as their results from SEM analysis of one fragment originally suggested (Kingery et al. 1988, 223-6). The sample examined by Kingery 'consisted of a base layer about 2 cm thick on which were plastered some 50 thin layers of about 0.5 mm thickness' (1988, 226). This description closely resembles the multiple layer of wall plaster examined in more recent analyses, discussed below. The fragments of probable fired-lime plaster discovered in 1999, by contrast, only occur as single rather than multiple layers of plaster, and are much thicker, at c. 5-10 mm.

Recent microscopic, SEM and XRD analyses of the multiple layers of wall and floor plaster at Çatalhöyük, in Levels VI-IX, indicate that the silts, clays and shell fragments within these plasters do not show any traces of alterations by firing, and are identical to naturally occurring beds of soft lime (Matthews 1996; Koppleson n.d.). Today, modern villagers in the region of Çatalhöyük mix the naturally occurring soft lime rich silty clays with water and apply them directly to the walls and floors as a thin wash, without the need for any prior preparation, sieving or firing (Matthews and Ergenekon 1998). Impressions of plant remains which have since decayed have been identified macroscopically and microscopically within the thin layers of soft mud plasters, and are likely to have added tensile strength and flexibility (Norton 1986).

These discussion have focused on some of the technological aspects of the emerging evidence for variation in plaster preparation techniques, relating to production fired lime plasters in early levels, and un-fired soft lime in later levels at Çatalhöyük. The apparent chronological variation in production of plasters, however, may prove to relate more strongly to spatial and socio-cultural contextual variation, if larger areas of the mound are excavated. The choices in selecting and applying these plasters are likely not only relate to technological and functional material aspects, but also to a wide range of ecological, sociocultural and symbolic concepts and conventions which are structured both by the community and individuals, and changing landscapes. We may be hampered in our investigations of these choices, by the fact that none of the plaster fragments have, as yet, been found in-situ.

4.3.4. Layers of calcareous materials in Space 181: fired lime production?

A series of discontinuous layers of dense calcareous aggregates were uncovered during excavation of Space 181. These layers were c. 5-25 cm thick, and often more than a metre in diameter. They occurred in both the eastern and western halves of the excavation trench. Some of the layers directly overly discrete areas of scorched earth, which is reddish brown in colour.

The matrix and aggregates of these layers were predominantly white in colour, with irregular lenses and aggregates which were pale-coloured green, yellow, blue and pink. Spot testing with hydrochloric acid in the field indicated that these lenses were calcareous. Microscopic analysis of spot samples in the field laboratory, revealed that many of these layers included calcareous spherulites from dung, as well as calcareous sediments. Intact pale green dung pellets, probably comprising calcitic ashes, were abundant in some flotation samples. Large fragments of shell, and calcined bone were also found in these layers (Frame this report).

9 block samples were collected for micromorphological analysis. 6 blocks were also collected for controlled microsampling, and SEM and XRD analyses. A range of bulk and archive samples were also collected. Full interpretation of these layers requires consideration of results not only from these analyses, but from experimental and ethnoarchaeological research.

A number of these observations suggest that these layers may relate to production of lime:

spot chemical testing with hydrochloric acid indicates that deposits are calcareous

spot microscopic analyses confirm that some of these deposits comprise calcareous sediments

archaeozoological identification of calcined bone indicates that temperatures reached at least 650 C

spot microscopic identification of melted silica also indicates temperatures reached more than c. 600 C

spot microscopic analyses enabled identification of abundant dung spherulites, 5 -20 μm in size in these calcareous layers, which together with:

archaeobotanical identification of abundant dung pellets, within calcareous deposits, suggest that although charred wood was also present and burnt (Asouti this report), much of the bulk of the fuel is likely to have been dung, reducing the potential impact of fired-lime production on wood sources in particular. Micromorphological and phytolith analyses of the plant remains within these dung pellets will provide information on what vegetation animals were feeding on, and improve assessment of ecological impact of fired lime production. Animals, however, would of course, not only furnished dung but a wide range of other resources including, meat, fat for consumption and industrial uses, as well as leather for example.

Production of fired lime potentially requires considerable resources and time. It is estimated that 4000 lbs of lime plaster were needed to plaster one building at Çayönü. The amounts of these resources vary considerably according to the scale of production. 'Measurements have shown that for each tone of quicklime produced in 19^th-century kilns about 1.8 tons of limestone rock and two tons of wood (fir) fuel were required (Burnell 1856). For open-pit firing about twice that amount of fuel, or more, would have been needed.' (Kingery et al. 1988, 221)'. Frierman notes, 'At ca. 750 C, the temperature of a brisk wood fire, it would take approximately eight hours to calcine pieces of limestone' (1971, 213). Craig Cessford in particular, raised the question of the scale of production represented by the discontuous layers in Space 181. He argued that it is likely that lime would have been produced for each building as it was constructed, rather than on an industrial scale. The scorched areas may indicate the size of the basal area of calcareous material burnt. The in-situ deposits, however, are likely to have been truncated and to only represent remains of what was not wanted after firing, providing us with a minimum volume of material burnt. Some ethnoarchaeological accounts of lime-burning refer to alternating layers of calcareous material and fuel. It is not clear from current field observations whether there is evidence for enclosed piles, or open fires. Some of the scorched areas are circular to oval in shape. Two of these areas appear to be delineated by shallow remains of later ditches. It is possible that these ditches may represent removal of some superstructure, whether a bank of earth, or something more structural. But as no remains of any superstructure survive, this discussion currently remains inconclusive.

This archive report is designed to relate some of the key discussions which arose during the field season, and which are currently the subject of ongoing investigations and interdisciplinary analyses, experimental and ethnoarchaeologial research, and reviews of current literature and research in other sites and regions.

4.4. Possible stable/animal pen

4.4.1 Field observations

At the top of his deep sounding in 1963, Mellaart describes encountering a humic rich layer and a flood deposit 'there lay a deposit of grey clay, about a foot in depth, with a brown humus layer on top. This was probably deposited during a period of flooding, to which this side of the mound nearest the river may have been periodically exposed' (Mellaart 1963, 73). When the first metre of infill in Mellaart's trench had been removed, clearly visible at the top of the sounding, was a sequence of finely bedded orange deposits, c. 20-30 cm deep, which overlay finely bedded grey deposits, also c. 20-30 cm thick (Figure 29). Both the orange and grey deposits were initially interpreted as alluvial deposits by the excavators.

These deposits, however, closely resemble a similar sequence of finely bedded orange deposits which had been encountered in 1994 during cleaning and recording of sections from 1960's excavations, 9 metres to the north-east of the deep sounding in X/VIII.25 (Matthews et al. 1996, Photograph 15.17). Micromorphological analysis had revealed that this sequence of finely bedded deposits comprised interbedded layers of herbivore dung, orange organic staining and salts, which are similar to modern ethnoarchaeological samples of herbivore stable deposits (Matthews et al. 1996, Photographs 15.18-15.23). Immediate microscopic examination in the field laboratory in June 1999, of spot samples of the orange and grey deposits sprinkled in clove oil, revealed that these deposits in Space 181were also rich in remains of dung similar to those observed in X/VIII.25. These remains in Space 181 include calcareous spherulites, 5-20 μm in diameter, that are encountered in ancient and modern dung samples from around the world, and are thought to form in the gut of animals during digestion (Brochier 1992 and 1993, Canti 1997 and 1998, Matthews et al. 1996), and phytoliths. The spherulites were more abundant in orange than the grey deposits.

When I asked the foreman of the workmen in 1999, Ismail Yasli, if he had seen any deposits similar to the finely bedded orange and grey deposits in modern villages, he replied that they were similar to deposits of straw and dung found in old animal stables in the village. A dialogue with Ismail Yaslı, Wendy Matthews and Başak Boz was recorded on video at the site, in which he discusses additional information on animal stabling and the nature of deposits in these areas.

These sequences of orange and grey deposits included slightly higher than normal concentrations of shed milk teeth, in wet-sieved resides, and a foetal/still born lamb (Frame 20 July 1999, Priority Tour). In discussion of deposits studied in 1994, Nerissa Russell suggested a range of occasions during which animals may be stabled or penned. These include care when pregnant, giving birth, suckling young, or sick; protection from weather; keeping animals away from food crops; and prior to ritual events (Russell pers comm.). Upon excavation, the intervening lenses of midden rich material, which are visible within the sequences of orange and grey deposits (Figure 29), included areas of in-situ burning. These lenses and areas of burning perhaps suggest that other activities also occurred in this area, and that stabling or penning of animals may have been periodic or seasonal. Micromorphological and phytolith analyses should aid identification of any seasonality represented in these sequences, and interpretation of the intervening lenses of midden-like materials.

Craig Cessford observed that the fine bedding preserved in these sequences of orange and grey deposits, suggests these areas are unlikely to have been exposed to wind and rain, and may have been roofed. Moisture from rain in particular is likely to have made the finely bedded deposits susceptible to reworking by trampling of animal hoofs, which would have disrupted and homogenised the layers. Ethnoarchaeological samples collected by Seona anderson for an MSc at Sheffield are also finely bedded (Anderson 1998; Matthews et al. 1996, Photograph 15.23). Ethnoarchaeological accounts describe tamping of dung in stables into fine layers by animal hoofs.

At the eastern edge of the trench a thick layer of unoriented midden-like deposits that were redeposited as a single massive unit, perhaps as packing, separated the sequences of orange and grey deposits. At the western limit of the 1960 deep sounding, however, the layer of re-deposited material petered out, and the orange deposits directly overlay the grey deposits. The slope of this packing may have aided drainage, or have compensated for subsidence.

4.4.2. Micromorphological observations

Preliminary examination of a micromorphological sample at the point at which the grey and orange deposits overlap confirms that many of the fine layers comprise compacted dung, and abundant orange and reddish orange organic staining. Somewhat surprisingly, the lower grey deposits in this sample do not contain calcareous spherulites from dung. The presence and absence of these spherulites in dung is not fully understood (Canti 1997 and 1998; Matthews et al. 1996), and may relate to differences in animal species, age, diet, geological substrate for example. One additional explanation, suggested by preliminary examination of this sample, is that post-depositional conditions may affect preservation of calcareous spherulites. During initial discussion of orange deposits in the field, and prior to seeing the grey deposits, Ismail Yasli, observed that some stable deposits were not yellowish in colour but grey and occured when deposits within stables were very acidic and had insufficient straw. It is perhaps possible that the spherulites in the grey deposits had been dissolved in acidic or perhaps prolonged reducing conditions, relating to saturation with uric acid. This will need further microscopic, elemental, organic and inorganic analysis. Archaeozoological and archaoebotanical data suggest deposits may have been acidic. Animal bones in the stable deposits had an unusual smooth surface finish and appeared slightly 'bleached', similar to bones excavated from stable deposits in Jordan (Frame and Twiss, Priority Tour July 1999, unit 4822). Mineralised seeds, often preserved in acidic environments, were also abundant in 4822 (Kennedy and Fairbairn Priority Tour 1999).

3 samples were collected for micromorphological analysis, 3 blocks for microsampling, and a range of other samples for organic and inorganic analyses and archival storage.

This area of dung rich deposits is bounded by walls to the east and west, and is more than six metres in length. Unexcavated deposits of these same sequences currently extend beyond the edges of excavations in 1999, to the north and south, and could possibly be sampled additionally in the future. Some lenses of orange deposits were also detectable in underlying levels, interbedded in upper midden deposits, below the walled stable area.

Discovery of these two areas for probable animal stabling within the complex layout of the settlement at Çatalhöyük has important implications for studies of animal husbandry and early agriculture. Study of dung within settlements, and other archaeobotanical and archaeozoological remains such phytoliths and as milk teeth, is contributing to an understanding of the management of animals, particularly when indications of domestication and management are not evident from the skeletal morphology (see also Brochier 1993). Additional ethnoarchaeological research will help in interpretation of these traces.

4.5. Assessment of preservation of organic remains

4.5.1. Water-table

There is some evidence for fluctuations in the water-table in deposits at the base of the mound, from analysis of thin section samples. Some fine sediments have been translocated by water and re-deposited as coatings in channels and chambers within deposits. It is unfortunately not possible, to date this translocation, which may have occurred in the Neolithic, or more recently.

These coatings are not as abundant as those in thin section samples from the base of the KOPAL trench, at the northern edge of the mound, examined in 1997. Deposits at the edge of the mound in the KOPAL trench in 1999 were drier than those at similar absolute levels within the mound in the South Area. These observations suggest that early deposits immediately below the mound, may have been have been more water-saturated, and subject to fewer fluctuations in the water-table than those off-the mound. This saturation may have been caused by 'wicking', by the presence of rising water encouraged by surface evaporation at higher elevations on the mound.

Diatoms, suggesting moist conditions, were identified in basal layers of the deep sounding in Space 181 (notably 5325), and in KOPAL (6029), in spot samples examined under the microscope in the field laboratory.

In September 1999, when the first c. 20-30 cm of natural marl were dug into, water rose up into the trench at a rate of 2 cm an hour. The water-level settled at the boundary between the marl, and the overlying greyish brown silty clay deposits. In thin section, the marl deposits comprise alternating lenses of calcareous silty clay and coarser sediments with abundant fine shell fragments, of medium sand size < c. 300 μm in length, and are therefore more permeable than perhaps expected. Overlying deposits were water-saturated. The moisture of deposits in the early levels of the mound varied slightly according to deposit type (Cessford pers. comm.).

4.5.2. Preservation of organic remains

4.5.2.1. Plant remains

Initial examination of plant remains in thin section suggests that no plant remains at the base of the mound are preserved entirely by water-logging. Many of the extant plant remains are preserved by partial or complete charring, or as pollen, siliceous remains, siliceous remains with occluded carbon, mineralised remains such as calcareous pericarps (notably from hackberry), calcitic ashes, or impressions in surrounding sediments. All of these plant remains types are present in both the early and later levels of the site.

In the natural marl, fine flecks of amorphous dark brown plant remains are preserved in the thin silty clay lenses, c. 0.1-0.3 mm in size, with few preserved cellular structures detectable in thin section. These plant remains may have been preserved in anaerobic conditions within the fine silty clay lenses.

The early levels, however, do include more partially charred plant remains with brown cell walls, and bright reddish brown or dark orange brown amorphous organic staining, observed for the first time, perhaps suggesting preservation of more organic residues (Carbone and Keel 1985). Large leaf-like parenchyma cells with occluded carbon are also preserved in a number of early deposits in thin section, both in Space 181 in the South Area and in the 1997 KOPAL trench at the northern edge of the mound. Deciduous leaf ?hair trichomes, both with and without brown occluded carbon, and some pollen grains (Chenopodium/ameranthus), were detected in deposits from early levels (5299, 5304, 5306), suggesting preservation in damp conditions, in spot samples examined under the microscope in the field. The early levels also include the first examples of mineralised yellowish orange uncharred seeds observed in thin section.

A large beam, more than a metre in length, 25 cm wide, c. 2 cm thick, was uncovered in western corner of Building 23, Space 178, Level X, 1002.90-1003.00m OD. The uppermost surface was preserved as charred remains, the underlying remains as brown organic remains/staining and white and pale brown mineralised remains. Similar white mineralised traces of a beam were uncovered as a lintel in the threshold of Building 2, Level IX.

In KOPAL excavations in 1999 to the north of the settlement, mineralised remains from reeds were identified in clusters in backswamp clay.

It should also be noted that modern vegetation on the surface of the mound has changed markedly since 1993, due to the general drying out of the region. When we first visited the site it was covered in dense vegetation standing to a height of up to c. 75 cm, visible in many photographs in 1993-95. At least one species of tall ?leguminous plant appears to have disappeared. The vegetation today is much lower, at c. 20-40cm. The bare surface of the mound is beginning to appear below some areas of dry grass. This reduction in vegetation is exposing the mound to greater risk of erosion. The extent of the stress on natural vegetation in the region is also marked by the death of the poplars in the thick stand that used to grow between the East and West Mounds, and has since been cut down. Other trees in this region are dying or yellowing from stress related to lack of water.

Concomitant with this drying of the surface of the mound, is the appearance of increasingly large cracks through the depths of the mound. The loss of moisture is affecting the colour, structure and visibility of deposits in the upper levels of the mound. Many visiting archaeologists marvel at the clarity of the stratigraphy. This clarity is currently being reduced in the upper levels.

4.5.2.2. Bone

In the earliest levels at the site, bone preservation varies from well preserved, to highly weathered and cracked, based on observations from examination of the ten thin sections selected for priority preparation and analysis. Many of the remains of unburnt bone in these early levels are unusual with a well-preserved internal microstructure, which is coloured translucent brown in plane-polarised light, and a thin rim around the edge of the bone which is bright yellow. This preservation is apparent in thin sections throughout the last two metres of excavation, in the last step in. In the upper levels at Çatalhöyük, by contrast, unburnt bone is generally pale yellow rather than brown in plane-polarised light, and does not have a distinctive bright yellow rim edge. The well preserved microstructure and brown colouration, may suggest better preservation of some organic components (Carbonne and Keel 1985 Evershed et al. 1995; Hedges and Millard 1995 a and b) and might perhaps indicate better conditions for preservation of DNA for example. These suggestions, however, require careful investigation by a range of specialists. The bone from these early levels, in the hand felt more solid and 'different' to me.

The brown colouration, described above, does not resemble traces of burning on bone in thin section, which are clearly evident in the same early levels, as well as later levels at the site. Burnt bone is present in thin sections of deposits immediately above the natural marl.

Some of the unburnt bone fragments in these early levels are not well-preserved. Very cracked and weathered fragments occur deposits immediately above the natural marl, in basal brown deposits, suggesting these fragments were subjected to considerable exposure and abrasion prior to deposition. Other fragments of unburnt bone, resemble those found throughout the upper levels, suggesting they may have not been buried as quickly as those which are brown in colour, and/or that micro-depositional conditions varied. Variation in characteristics of bone and nature of deposition and post-depositional alterations will be studied in detail in the future, particularly once thin section samples throughout the sequence are available for study.

4.5.2.3. Coprolites and yellowish-orange organic aggregates

In the field, a range of yellowish-orange aggregates were observed throughout many of the midden-like deposits. These aggregates were particularly abundant, in deposits close to the top of the lowest excavation step, and often contained dense concentrations of bone fragments. One aggregate in particular, was clearly in the form of a cylindrical coprolite, c. 2 cm in diameter and 5 cm in length. A range of these aggregates have been exported for organic residue analysis.

In thin section, yellowish-orange organic aggregates are present in samples from the earliest levels at the site, immediately above the natural marl. Some of these aggregates include fragments of bone, or siliceous plant remains, others are amorphous. The debate as to whether these represent omnivorous/carnivorous coprolites, or whether some represent remains of food or other organic remains, is currently unresolved, but is being investigated by organic residue analysis. The extent to which these have been mineralised also requires further analysis.

Charred remains of dung were found in a range of flotation samples, and are present in thin section samples from the earliest levels of the mound. In thin section, some of the dung pellets are only partially charred, and include amorphous organic staining, which is reddish brown and dark brown in colour, suggesting preservation of some organic residues.

Pale greenish dung pellets were recovered in flotation samples from lime burning deposits, and probably comprise calcitic ashes. Abundant calcareous spherulite particles from dung were observed in many of the lime burning and midden deposits, in spot samples examined under the microscope in the field laboratory. In the priority thin section samples, herbivore dung is present in the earliest levels as the site, and is often burnt, preserved as charred remains or associated with calcitic ashes. This early dung includes digested phytoliths, and is present both with and without calcareous spherulites. Additional analysis of the phytoliths in dung, in collaboration with Dr Arlene Rosen, will enable study of animal diet, and variation in consumption of wild and cereal plants, for example.

All of this evidence together suggests that animal dung was an important source of fuel from the earliest levels at the site, and when lime was being burnt. It raises a range of inter-disciplinary questions. How were humans able to collect dung in abundant quantities? What implications does this have for studies of human-animal inter-relationships and animal husbandry, and ecological awareness and practices in the Neolithic?

How proximate were the diverse wood species that are preserved at the site as abundant charred fragments, and in what conditions did they grow?

5. KOPAL

Residences and inhabitants should not be viewed as atoms, and are being studied as part of the larger settlement and range of communities in the region, and landscapes and ecosystems, in conjunction with regional survey and palaeoecological investigations.

Large scale exposure of the Neolithic landscape and surfaces to the north of the site in 1999 and coring (Boyer this report; Roberts this report) is enabling analysis of micro-environment and uses and concepts of beyond the settlement.

The southern edge of the KOPAL excavation trench in 1999 overlapped with the northern edge of the trench dug in 1997, from a range of deposits had already been sampled and studied in thin section (Matthews 1998a). Previously sampled deposits included marl prior to occupation at the site, early ditch fill, backswamp clays, organic lenses with charred and partially charred plant remains and thick coatings from translocation of sediments by water, several buried soil horizons, and orange lenses.

In 1999, 6 blocks were sampled from 1999 KOPAL excavations, and one from coring between the East and West Mounds (Table 1). These included samples of natural sand and overlying marl, backswamp deposits with mineralised plant remains, pit fill, an oxidised landsurface, and a LateNeolithic/early Chalcolithic activity surface. Only the organic rich sample from core between the two mounds was selected for Priority thin section preparation, discussed below. The remaining thin sections are not yet ready for study.

None of the spot samples examined under the microscope in the field laboratory included calcareous spherulites from dung, in contrast to the early midden deposits at the base of the settlement in Space 181. Sponge spicules were common in many deposits, including units 6025, 6029 and 6030, and diatoms were present in unit 6029. The presence of these, together with mineralised remains from reeds, suggest deposits in this area were moist, and perhaps marshy. The sparsity of phytoliths, and charred plant remains in spot samples and archaeobotanical samples from the same deposits confirm that although there were large fragments of bone in these deposits, the deposits did not include ash or charred remains from fires.

The dark organic remains observed in the core between the two mounds, at 304-301 cm, include abundant charred and partially charred plant remains and organic staining, in thin section. Siliceous plant remains and phytoliths are also abundant.

6. Buildings in South Area

Microstratigraphic and micromorphological analyses are enabling identification of traces of spatial and temporal variation in uses and concepts of space within the buildings at Çatalhöyük. A range of these variations was evident in the field, and is briefly described in Table 4 for Building 17.

Block samples for micromorphological analysis were collected within the space of one to two metre intervals across floors in buildings excavated in the South Area (Table 1). Building 17, Level IX, in particular was well preserved and of interest, as it is an antecedant to one of the most important buildings excavated at the site. Later in the history of this building plot, in Level VI, the structure 'Shrine 10', included some of the most elaborate sculpture of bulls heads and 'Mother Goddesses' and wall paintings discovered at the site (Mellaart 1962, Figure 14). This building has been reconstructed in the Museum of Anatolian Civilisations in Ankara, with many of these original sculptures and paintings. The building in this location, prior to 'Shrine 10' was less elaborate in Levels VII and VIII. There was a possible stag carved out of plasters in a corner in Level VII, and no decoration in Level VIII. Excavations this year focused on the unexcavated building in Level IX, once the fill and burials below Level VIII were excavated.

The microstratigraphic sequence in Building 17 Level IX was very complex, with many remodelling of platforms and floor areas, and changes in uses and concepts of space (Table 4). There was, for example, a switch in the size and location of bins from small ones SW corner in middle phases, to large ones in the NE corner in the latest phase. There was also a corresponding switch in ovens from the NE corner in middle phases to SW corner in the latest phase. A series of hearths appear to have been present through both of these changes in the SE corner. Differences between archaeologically 'cleaner' and 'dirtier' areas in Building 17 were discussed during the Priority Tour on 17 August. There is considerable variation in character of bioarchaeological remains and micro-residues in these different areas. Thin section samples from these areas will also investigate the nature of choice of floor surfaces, impact of activities on them, and differences in accumulated residues. Wall plaster in SE corner of Building 17 was sampled in order to study variation in nature and frequency of re-plastering and accumulation of soot in this area of the house, where there was a series of hearths. Samples from the rest of the walls, and junctions between wall and floor plasters will be collected during future final excavation of this building.

Buildings 16, 18 and 23 were also sampled, but had been partially excavated by Mellaart. The microstratigraphic sequences in these buildings also suggest spatial and temporal variation in uses and concepts of space within these buildings.

A range of unusual deposits were found in a number of burials, including owl pellets, red and yellow ochre, yellowish organic material, and black staining on bones, which are currently being analysed.

7. Buildings in BACH Area, North Area

In 1998, many samples were collected from across the floors of Building 3 in excavation baulks and in exposed sections at the edge of burial and post-retreaval pits, 12 in total. As a consequence, fewer samples were collected in 1999. These included samples of floors and platforms, a hearth, mudbrick and mortar and collapsed roof fragments.

Spot samples examined under the microscope, in collaboration with Dr Arlene Rosen, enabled preliminary characterisation of variation in nature of deposits, and uses and concepts of space. These observations included detection of a sparsity of plant remains on E platform; abundant phytoliths and charred remains in deposits in NE corner; abundant charred remains and calcitic ashes near to hearths, including wild grass, reed and sedge phytoliths in two hearths (6202, 6208); and extensive reprecipitation of salts in SE corner. Abundant charred and uncharred wheat husks and parenchyma storage tissue fragments were identified in spot sample from small pit with charred tubers next to the hearths, (6191). Siliceous remains of sedges are common in plaster floor samples, and may have either been present in original sediment source areas, or have been added to plasters floors. In both instances, the sedge fragments would have provided added flexibility and tensile strength to the mud plaster floors (Norton 1986).

Variations in the character of base of hearths in the centre of Space 86, probably indicate different uses of each hearth. A ring of small postholes c. 2-3 cm in diameter surrounded the southernmost hearth. An area of scorching on top of packing represents the central hearth. Pebbles set into yellowish sediment, lined the base of the northernmost hearth. Deposits on top of each of these hearths are being subject to a range of bioarchaeological and micromorphological analyses (Priority Tour 19 August).

8. Micromorphology of samples collected in 1998

50 thin sections collected in 1998 were studied as part of a British Academy Post-Excavation Award to the Çatalhöyük Project, and indicate marked variation in the uses and concepts of space. The results are being integrated with a range of other interdisciplinary analyses, including macro and micro residues from combined wet-sieving and flotation, and phosphate and ICP AES elemental analysis. They are being plotted using GIS, for publication in the final excavation volume.

9. Future analyses and development of the field laboratories

We hope to carry out ethnoarchaeological research in 2000 and 2001, particularly in the light of questions emerging from analyses of materials for the forthcoming final publications at Çatalhöyük, and the rich knowledge of the local people that is rapidly changing (Matthews and Ergenekon 1998; Matthews, Hastorf and Ergenekon in press). We were unfortunately unable to conduct any ethnoarchaeology in the field this year. When the Çatalhöyük Project permit was applied for in 1999, we did not know that we should apply to conduct ethnoarchaeology as a completely separate project. Some botanical specimens were collected, and experimental burning and plant processing conducted, as part of the diverse archaeobotanical research programme.

Integrative interdisciplinary research at Çatalhöyük is providing critical information in the field 'at the trowel's edge', where many questions arise and excavation and sampling strategies are designed, which subsequently go on to influence the patterns of data and scope of future interpretations (Hodder 1997)

We hope that the field laboratories at Çatalhöyük could be developed. This would considerably enhance the range of data and multiple lines of inquiry informing critical decisions and interpretations in the field. It would also enable greater opportunity for contextual analysis and comparison of field observations and microscopic and chemical characterisations.

There is an urgent need for an optical polarising microscope in the field laboratory at Çatalhöyük, given the increasing involvement of a wide range of researchers in the project with microscopic analysis of sediments, phytoliths, diatoms, pollen, starch, fibres, plant anatomy, conservation materials, geology, pottery, clay ball and micromorphological thin sections. Thin section preparation facilities for small resin-impregnated blocks of sediment, geological, pottery and clay ball samples would enable immediate analysis of some of these materials in the field.

A range of organic and inorganic chemical analyses could also be developed, including phosphate, and thin line chromatography. All of these analyses and conservation treatments require additional basic laboratory equipment such as a fume hood and extractor fan, oven, chemical storage cabinets, desiccators, and vacuum pump for example.

References

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Figures

Figure 29: Microstratigraphic sequnce of orange and grey stable layers at the top of the deep sounding in Space 181.<.p>

Tables

Table 1. List of contexts and deposit types for which block samples were collected for micromorphological analysis in 1999.

Table 2. List of contexts and deposit types for which block samples were collected for micro-sampling in 1999.

Table 3. List of interdisciplinary analyses, numbers of samples and co-ordinating institutions, Çatalhöyük 1999.

Table 4. Contextual variation in microstratigraphic sequences in Building 17

© Çatalhöyük Research Project and individual authors, 1999