ÇATALHÖYÜK 1997 ARCHIVE REPORT

The Human Remains

Theya Molleson and Peter Andrews

Report on the human remains from Çatalhöyük following the excavations in 1997. This report is restricted to building 1 since the Mellaart areas are only partly excavated, but it includes all the data from both the 1996 and 1997 seasons and includes most of the burials from this building. Some of the burials discovered in the second half of the season have not been reported on in detail because they were excavated after we left the site.

The first half of the report documents the burials divided into three areas of building 1. Burial numbers are listed and skeletons found in them briefly described, both the identifications of the individuals and their preservation/disposition in the burials. This followed by short accounts of the demography and biology of the building 1 population.

Summary of burial data:

Space 110

At the eastern end of room 1, space 110, there are two burial pits. In burial 28 was found a single primary burial, and just to the south there is a complex of pits with at least 9 burials in two different phases of occupation, with at least 4 primary burials.

Burial 28

Skeleton 1378 was a primary burial with no loss of skeletal elements and no evidence of any form of defleshing. It is from an old adult male and it is possible that the body was bound or wrapped before burial, but the evidence is weak. The skeleton was on the left side, head to the west into the room. The bones are extensively root-marked, probably recently as the burial is near the present land surface and well within the present root zone. There are occasional surface markings which may be insect damage, and in places there is loss of surface bone which appears to be post-excavation as a result of drying. No sign of weathering, and the occasional corrosion all appears recent as described. The distal humerus has a striation near the articulation (the articulation itself is broken); the striation is shallow and discontinuous, but it has some of the characteristics of a cut mark, such as a broad cross-section and striations along the side and base. It is also in a good anatomical position for a cut mark, for example cutting the bracialis muscle.

The upper ribs and vertebrae have a black coating on their internal surfaces which is absent from their external surfaces. Internal in this context means internal to the body or viscera. This black coating is superficial to the bone and does not penetrate, and it is readily washed off. It has a fine granular structure under light microscope, and this plus its superficial nature distinguished it from manganese. It may be carbon, and the suggestion has been made that it could be the carbon residues from the lungs of the dead person which could have been contaminated with smoke from the combination of cooking fires in the house with inadequate ventilation.

Burial 29, 49, 200 and 212

Also in space 110 there is a series of burial pits covering phases II and III. The earliest burials were 200 and 212, primary burials of single individuals at the same level: burial 200 - skeleton 2119 articulated adult lying on left side, head to west; burial 212 skeleton 2115 partly disarticulated child, also lying on left side, head to west. They were apparently buried independently. Above burial 212 was a later one that did not disturb it, skeleton 1995 in burial 49, a primary burial of a young adult female missing both legs and the left forearm, lying on back and head to the west. Above burial 200 was the burial 29 complex, which again did not disturb the earlier one but which probably disturbed burial 49 to the south.

Burial 29 has 7 individuals buried at different times, but it is not possible to determine the sequence of burials in burial 29 except for the primary burial which was the last one to be buried. This is Individual 1, skeleton 1466, a mature adult undisturbed except for the absence of the skull lying on his back, head to east, tightly flexed. The other individuals are as follows:

Individual 2 1467 adolescent (with adolescent 1928 and part of 1364), disarticulated, burnt?

Individual 3 1928 old adult, disarticulated

Individual 4 1928 old adult, disarticulated

Individual 5 1949 old adult, disarticulated

Individual 6 1963 and 1949 young adult, partly disarticulated

Individual 7 1968 adult, disarticulated

Figure 28: Plan view of the space 110 burials.

Space 71

In space 71 in building 1 there are five burial pits, probably in the floor of the building. Burial 30 has 6 individuals, burial 31 has 5 individuals, burial 40 has 2 infants, and burials 44-45 have four individuals.

Burial 30

There are two primary burials interred at the same time. Skeleton 1424 is an articulated skeleton of an old female lying on the left side, head to the south into the room and tightly flexed, and 1450, articulated infant buried at the same time as the articulated adult lying on its right side facing the adult. These were the last individuals to be buried. The earliest burial is represented by a fragmentary juvenile foot (skeleton1426). This individual was disturbed by later burial which are now represented by a bone bundle with at least four individuals buried at unknown intervals, and these in turn were displaced during burial of 1424 and 1450, bundled together and replaced in the grave. Finally, there is an isolated femur (1464) with evidence of weathering or heat action and is clearly distinct from any of the other skeletons in burial 30.

Burial 31

Up to six individuals are present, of which none appear to be complete except for an articulated infant (skeleton 1498) in the south end of the pit. In fact this seems from our data to be a separate pit which could have been either earlier or later than the main one that is called burial 31. The numbered skeletons in burial 31 are as follows: 1481 an incomplete disarticulated skeleton from an adult just below floor level; 1482 an adolescent partial skeleton with articulated vertebral column; 1483 articulated vertebrae and ribs; 1489 skull and disarticulated vertebrae; 1491 six articulated vertebrae in perfect articulation; 1934 articulated vertebrae and ribs (and 1498 the primary burial of the articulated infant). There are six individuals in burial 31, buried as follows:

Individual 1 - 1481 mandible, 1489 skull, 1934 articulated ribs and vertebrae of adult

Individual 2 - 1483 articulated ribs and vertebrae with 1481 cervicals of young adult

Individual 3 - 1482 mandible and articulated partial skeleton of adolescent

Individual 4 - 1491 lower vertebral column, articulated, adult

These were probably buried together having been exposed on the surface and defleshed before reburial, with only parts of the skeletons being preserved.

Individual 6 - 1481 partial skeleton, disarticulated, of adolescent which may have been contemporaneous with individuals 1-4, or may have been earlier and been dispersed by their later burial.

Figure 29: Burial 31

All of the bones from these five individuals in burial 31 have similar surface modifications. They are lightly stained brown with dispersed manganese. The ribs have been closely examined for cut marks, because of the nature of the assemblage (see below), but none were found. No marks were present on the pelvis and scapulae, which were either intact or had recent breakage. Very few hand and foot bones were present in the five individuals other than the primary infant burial (1498), with only 5 metacarpals and metatarsals, which for 5 individuals represents 5% of the expected number, and 4 phalanges, which is only 2% of the expected number. The sediments were carefully screened, and the absence of these terminal bones must be considered significant, particularly when it is considered that over 78% of thoracic vertebrae were present for the same five individuals, 92% of ribs and 80% of lumbar vertebrae. There were also no patellae and hyoid bones, so that the evidence points strongly to the loss of peripheral skeletal elements and the preferential preservation of ribs and vertebrae. In fact the disposition of skeletons in burial 31 can be simplified as shown in the figure to a series of vertebral columns with ribs, all aligned approximately east west and the three most complete ones bunched together (1482, 1483 and 1481/1934) in a single group. All this suggest strongly that these were the remains of bodies exposed on the surface of the ground for defleshing before being buried in burial 31.

The head of a humerus numbered 1481 (could equally belong to 1482) has two parallel scores running anteroposteriorly across the top of the head, slightly posterior so that they are on a slight posterior inclination. Embedded in the grooves are two bone splinters, embedded deeply in the spongy bone of the articular end, and they appear to have been inserted from the front. The bone splinters have freh breaks and must have been parts of larger pieces broken off recently, mybe even during excavation. No shape or structure can be seen on the bone splinters, and the shape and depth of the scores cannot be determined while the splinters remain inside. A preliminary conclusion is that the splinters were parts of bone implements and that their presence in the humeral head indicates purposive human activity, whether disarticulation and/or defleshing of the body after death or a projectile causing injury during life is not known.

Figure 30: Head of humerus from Burial 31 with two splinters of bone incised into two cuts, penetrating the cancellous bone below the articular surface

Burial 40

This burial appears to be a later pit cut into burial 30, and it contained two individuals, both articulated infant/juvenile skeletons buried together and wrapped in a basket or binding of vegetable fibres: 1912 articulated juvenile (3-4 years) with head to the east 1950 articulated infant skeleton with head to the west No connection has been found with any individual in burial 30 to account for the missing arm bones in 1912 and the missing leg bones in 1950. They seem to have been buried together in a single basket or binding, head to toe but with both on their left sides so that they are facing in different directions. They are fully articulated except for the missing bones and so appear to be primary burials, but the missing bones are hard to account for. Whole limbs were not missing, because in both cases the upper and lower parts of the limbs were present.

Burials 44 and 45

Three individuals, two juveniles and an infant 1474 juvenile, no other information 1935 infant of 6 months, skull and some limb elements 1959 Juvenile (originally numbered 1940), child of 4-5 years 1960 Juvenile of 5 years.

In burial 44, skeletons1959 and 1960 were buried together, both complete primary burials, heads to the north towards the outer side of building 1. 1959 is lying on the right side facing west, and 1960 on the left side facing east and slightly above 1959. 1960 may have been buried slightly later than 1959, but the two skeletons are so tightly integrated it looks as if they were buried together. The bodies are splayed, with little or no flexion. The two legs of 1959 were spread-eagled with one leg bent back on itself at the knee. The legs of 1960 were bent at the hip with the left leg fully extended so that the foot is level with the skull, and the right leg is slightly flexed.

All the bones are well preserved, with little breakage. The bones are extensively manganese stained with the staining localized either on one side of the bone, as on the femora of 1959, or to the same area of the bone but on both sides, eg the pelvis of 1959, and this may indicate local wet areas in the soil. There is extensive root and insect damage, most of it post-dating the manganese staining and probably recent, but where the bone is unstained it is very white and clean.

The 1935 infant is in the northeast corner of burial 44, with femora, tibia, radius and ulna, but no vertebrae or ribs.

In burial 45, skeleton 1992 is an infant 3-6 months lying on left side, head to west and facing north. Complete body in articulation, so primary burial but with some disturbance. The left arm has only the humerus in place, and the radio-ulna have been located in burial 44: they were actually excavated in 1996, and their exact location is not known, whereas the rest of 1992 was excavated in 1997. There are also some of the ribs, hand bones and one tibia from skeleton 1935 (burial 44) mixed in with 1992, distinguishable by their slightly larger size. The sequence of events in the burial 44/45 pits is as follows: 1. 1935 infant buried first, but it is not clear if it was in 44 or 45:

skull, 2 femora, tibia, radius and ulna were found in 44

ribs, vertebrae, tibia, radius and ulna were found in 45 2. Burial 45 with the primary burial of 1992. Skeleton 1935 may have been disturbed at this stage, with the 45 bones mixed with1992, but the disturbance could have been later. 3. Burial 44 with primary burials of 1959 and 1960. At this stage there would have been further minor disturbance of burial 45 resulting in the moving of the radius and ulna from 45 to 44.

Northwest Platform burials

The largest and most complex series of burial pits is found in the main northwest platform of building 1. At least 7 separate burial pits have been identified, some with multiple burials. Burial 35 has 2 individuals, Burial 36 just one. Burial 38 has approximately 17 individuals but more work is needed on this. Burials 41 and 42 have 3 immature individuals with little information on them. Burial 47 has at least 4 individuals. Burial 202 has a single infant with extremely abundant beads. The other burials (204, 207) have not yet been investigated.

Burial 35

Skeleton 1913 is an articulated child's skeleton lying with its back to the outer wall of the building, facing into the building with the hear to the west. It is therefore lying on its right side, legs and feet directly on top of each other, left on right, and strongly flexed. There was a necklace of beads around the neck. The skeleton is intact and was clearly primary.

Burial 36

Burial 36 is at the far corner of the northwest plaform and has a single primary burial, the skeleton of a single juvenile (5-6 years), skeleton 1495, in a deep cut made just big enough to fit the body in, with the head doubled over towards its front. The skeleton is complete, intact, and clearly a primary burial.

Figure 31: Northwest Platform Burials:

Burial 38

This is the major burial cut in the northwest platform, and it contains at least 17 individuals at present. I have not worked on these yet and it may be that some of them belong together. One complete and articulated skeleton, but for the most part the remains are disarticulated and dispersed.

1922+1939 incompletely articulated skeleton of a child of 8 years

1923 skull of a child 5-6 years.

1924 articulated skeleton of an old adult, primary burial

1925 skull and mandible and 3 cervicals of 9 year old child

1938 maxilla and partial skeleton of 4 year old child and parts of 18 year old.

1926 disarticulated bones of at least 4 juvenile skeletons, 5, 5-10 & >10 years

1937 skull of child 8-9 years

1448 incomplete juvenile of about 4 years and fragments of an adult

1478+1496 skull and incomplete remains of juvenile, older than

1493 1493 skull and incomplete remains of juvenile ~9 years

1496 infant maxilla, 6 months

2520 hands and feet of 8 year old child

The bones are all mixed together and clearly they represent more than one burial phase. Only skeleton 1924 can be viewed as a single unit, being the last and primary burial, and at this stage it is impossible to say in what order most of the bodies were buried or even how many individuals are represented.

1924
|
1922+1939
|
1925+1938
|
---------------------------------------------
'            '             '            '             '             '
1937    1926    1923     1975    2520    1496

Burial 41

Burial 41 has skeleton 1916 infant skeleton (~9 months), complete and articulated. Primary burial. It is facing north, lying on right side with head to the southeast. The knees are flexed, the right arm at 450 angle with the left hand resting on the legs. The right arm is lying under the body and bent upwards. The bone is in good condition.

Burial 42

Burial 42 has two to three disarticulated juvenile skeletons with little information.

Burial 47

Burial 47 has at least four individuals, a 1 year old infant (skeleton 2125, complete skeleton, flexed, articulated, with head to the south and lying on left side); an old adult and juvenile of 6 years (skeleton 1955.1, old adult lying on back, head to west, complete and partly disarticulated; 1955.2 parts of skull and postcrania of the juvenile) and a 3 year old child (skeleton 2126 and 2168 1 year old infant, nearly complete but in two locations and lacking patellae and hyoid and some hand and foot bones, although not the terminal phalanges). Burial 202 has nearly complete skeleton (2105) of an 1 year old infant, lacking patellae but with hyoid present, flexed, with many beads

Burial 202

Skeleton 2105 is the only one in burial 202 and is an articulated skeleton of a one year old infant with abundant beads wrapped around its legs and neck. It is flexed, articulated and is certainly a primary burial, but it is lacking the sacrum, although the hyoid is present. Lying partly on back and twisted to left side, head to the southwest lying diagonally towards the side wall.

Burials 204 and 207

Burials 204 and 207 not seen and not commented on' 2 skeletons

Fill

Burials in fill not seen and not commented on; 7 skeletons

Total count of skeletons as listed here is 64, including the burials in the fill. This number is subject to change, particularly when more work has been done on the burial 38 individuals, many of which may have different skeleton numbers at present.

Demography

The demographic history of Room 1, Building 1 on the North site can be summarized with reference to four phases (Phases I - IV) of occupation and a preceding phase of Fill during which sediment accumulated within the walls of the underlying building.

The Fill.

Before the floors were laid in Room 1 seven bodies were placed in the fill of the otherwise unused building. The burials included separate inhumations of an adult male and a female; also an infant and four newborn or stillborn infants. Notably, three of the neonates had been placed in a row at the threshold to the crawl opening between the two parts of the room. The fourth neonate had been placed on top of the mature adult female.

The practice of burying neonates at the threshold to a room or house has continued at least until recent times and this may be the first recorded instance. If these dead newborn infants were placed side by side on a single occasion it highlights the significance of such bodies and raises the question as to how three could be mustered at one time.

The presence of a supra condylar fossa in the right humerus of the adult female 2527 provides evidence for a possible relationship between those buried in the Fill and later burials in Grave 29.

The adult male (2529) was old, well over 60 years, with obliteration of the sutures between the cranial bones. The long bones were extremely light and osteoporotic - an unusual condition in a male. This condition is associated with age, disuse and emaciation; also with alcoholism and smoking.

The infant (2510) died aged about nine months. This could be an age of weaning but is also a time when babies start to move about on their own and explore new objects, dirty or clean with their mouths.

Phase I.

After the renewal of Room I burials were placed in the East Platform (space 110), The North West Platform and in space 71.

Two flexed inhumations, 2115 and 2119, were buried side by side on the south end of the East Platform. Both remained articulated and undisturbed. The older of the two, skeleton 2115, an old adult female, has a septal aperture in the right humerus which possibly links her genetically with the overlying burial 1995 and a later burial 1467. Both 2115 and 2119 have anterior dental crowding.

Within the area of space 71 three infants and three juveniles were buried during the period of phase I. Most are single inhumations and remained in articulation. Only 1935 (B44) an infant of about six months had been disturbed by the inhumation of 1992 (B45) a three month infant, that lacked its head. The last burials in B44 were 1959 and 1960 two four to five year olds possibly buried together.

Burial 40 contained the skeletons of two children, a juvenile of about three years (1912) and an infant of about nine months (1950). Six individuals have been identified in the overlying Burial 30, including the articulated skeletons of an old female (1424) and a six month infant (1450) buried facing each other; the burial of the female terminating the use of this particular grave. 1424 could be perceived as being surrounded by the dead of her family. The infant and an adolescent display cribra orbitalia.

In Phase I at least 18 individuals (15 immature and 3 adult) were buried under the north west platform in Burials 38, 41, 42, 47, 202, 204 and 207; and only one individual, both juveniles, in each of Phase II and Phase III. The burials intercut and appear to be one complex. The earliest skeletons generally being less disturbed and more often fully articulated than the later. Most are infants, less than two years old or young juveniles.

Phase II

In area 110 the articulated upper skeleton (1995) of a young adult male was interred (B49) directly above 2115 and below 1467. There may be a family relationship between 1995 and 1467 since both have a well marked supra-condylar fossa in the humerus. The inhumation of 1995 appears to have disturbed at least five previous burials, all attributed to Phase II.. From the overlying B29 disarticulated bones were recovered of the crania of two old adults (1928.2, 1928.3); the head and arm bones of an old male (1949); the torso, hand and foot of a young adult male( 1963); and the partially articulated torso of a mature adult (1968 with 2068).

Phase III

The final burials in Room I took place in Phase III with the interment of three or four individuals. A nine year old juvenile (1913) was placed, flexed tightly, into a large cut (B35) on the north side of the north west platform.

The main burials were into the east platform. An adolescent (1467) male had been inserted directly above 2115 and 1955, buried during previous phases and must belong to the very end of phase II. Some of the bones have been affected by the burning of this part of the room that took place at the end of phase II times. Presumably the skeleton of 1467 was disturbed during the excavation of the grave from 1466. The disarticulated bones were dispersed around the edge of the cut for 1466.

The body of 1466 a large mature adult male was slightly flexed and represents the last burial in B29. He appears to have been buried without his head since the neck is close the edge of the grave cut and the neck vertebrae are in normal articulation..

The northern part of the east platform contains a single inhumation, that of a tightly flexed and bound old male (1378).

Phase IV

The were no inhumations in Room 1 during phase IV.

Summary

A total of at least 64 individuals must have been buried within Room 1. This number includes four neonates in the Fill. With 13 infants under two years and 15 sub adolescent juveniles more than half the sample is of immature individuals. Old adults, of which there are 11 are well represented.

The proportion of immature to adult skeletons is very high but is compatible with an expanding population based on an extended family (or possibly a polygamous family). If each of the areas, NW Platform, 71 and 110 was used by a different nuclear family within the extended family unit this could explain the distribution. The contemporaneous use of the three areas samples sibling (brothers) families at different stages. Thus the youngest family is buried in on the north west platform (B38) and their children who died in infancy are buried there in phase I; surviving children that subsequently died in phase II (B36) and phase III (B35).

We can postulate that the family that used area 71 for burial (B30, 40) was already older in phase I than the B38 family and most of the children aged five or more. B31 could contain the dead children of another sibling.

In each case B38, 30, 40, 31 the last burials include an adult female or male; the death of a spouse that ended the family unit. The surviving spouses could have been buried in phase II with the east platform group.

The above describes the demographic pattern of Room 1, its generality can only be confirmed by future work. If the pattern is real there must be a decision to occupy a Building possibly at a point in the segmentation of a family towards the development of a new extended family (cf. Bedouin family structure). The death of the senior member or over-population would mark the end of the life of one extended family, which is the end of the phase of a particular Building.

Distributions of age classes are shown on the accompanying three figures.

Figure 32: General distribution of age classes for all individuals in building 1, showing high numbers of juvenile individuals.

Figure 33: Distributions of age classes divided by spaces in building 1, with space 110, the east platform, space 71, the floor next to the north wall, and the northwest platform analysed separately.

Figure 34: Distributions of age classes by phase are shown for fill and phases I to III.

Evidence for relationships

Three instances of supracondylar fossa of the humerus were noted in individuals buried at different times in area 110. This provides reasonably strong evidence that individuals buried in this area were related and that they in turn were related to 2527 an adult female, who also displays this character and was buried in the Fill before Room I was fully inhabited.

Enamel defects noted in two or three cases from area 71 may also indicate related individuals as well as cases of hypodontia or dental reduction.

Spondylothesis, a failure of the last lumbar or first sacral vertebra to unite, has a genetic predisposition in its etiology, and there are two cases of this.

Stature

The people had relatively long forearms and lower legs, a general finding for neolithic samples. Thus, in calculating stature, the formulae of Trotter and Gleser (1952, 1958) given in Brothwell (1981) for negroes were found to give the most consistent results, and have been used here to evaluate heights of females and males. Owing to the fragmented nature of most of the bones few estimates have been possible. The height given in the following Table is that derived from the most reliable bone, where possible a leg bone, rather than an average of different estimates (See Trotter and Gleser 1958, Brothwell 1981).

Table 1 Calculated statures of adults from Room 1, Building 1 (North)

Dimorphism

Determination of Sex and sexual dimorphism in skeletal material Sex is determined from the manifestation of secondary sex characters which are developed to different degrees in different populations. The characteristics of the pelvis, sacrum and skull are the most distinctive of females; those of the skull, pelvis and sacrum of males. In general, males are more robust than females and measures of robusticity involving two or more diameters may be valuable in determining sex. Such measures should be established for each population since size and therefore robusticity varies between populations. the robusticity of the lower canine can be particularly diagnostic in homogeneous samples, but is of limited value in mixed or heterogeneous samples.

The use of absolute measurements to evaluate sex is to be avoided. It polarises the sexes, incorrectly attributing large women as males and small men as females. The size range given in many texts for attributing sex (Bass, Standards) will not necessarily apply to the sample under study, which may derive from a population that was taller or shorter than the reference; this being genetically and geographically determined.

Size, especially of males, may be an indicator of environmental conditions and nutritional health. Size of females may relate to environmental conditions and correlate with age of reproduction.

Sexual dimorphism, the difference in size between the two sexes, can be particularly informative of the social structure of the population. In a uniform homogeneous sample there may be distinct differences between the sexes, particularly marked in late growing bones - bones of the jaw, foot, hands, clavicle, patella, and in measures of robusticity of these bones and cortical thickness of the long bones. It should be remembered that robusticity is also a measure of work load/force and may differentiate task specialization.

It is not good practice to use dimensions to infer age of juveniles. This is most reliably done by reference to dental development. The growth achievement of a child can be assessed by comparison of size with dental development. This can give information as to health and genetics. But for demographic purposes, with fragmented material, it may be necessary to resort to the use of dimensions to infer age of immature individuals where the dentition is lacking.

Posture and activity related bone morphology

It seems that a number of different postures were used habitually to rest or to carry out specific tasks: squatting on the heels, squatting or kneeling on toes, both energy efficient (Huard and Montaigne 197x), sitting cross legged, squatting both legs to one side, squatting knees together heels to buttocks, squatting weight on one foot purchase on the other.

Many of these postures may be idiosyncratic, others may be best suited to specific tasks. Pounding ochre with a pestle and mortar would be ergonomically most efficient if the mortar is held between the thighs and the pestle driven from the centre of gravity about the shoulders. Grinding of grain on a saddle quern is best undertaken from a kneeling position with the toes curled under to provide 'push-off' for the forward drive. Overshooting the quern and injury to the proximal articulation of the big toe was avoided by placing the quern on a plinth (see Mellaart Anatolian Studies 1962).

One, as yet unidentified, task led to injuries to the thumb. Osteoarthritic changes to the first metacarpal and trapezium of both hands is associated with morphological evidence for squatting on the toes, thighs spread apart.

Handed tasks, leading to arm asymmetry would include wall and floor plastering. These seem to have been onerous tasks especially when old plaster was re-used since it had to be thoroughly broken up (Wendy Mathews has evidence for this from her floor sections).

Diet

In comparison to other Neolithic sites wear on the teeth is very little and even old individuals do not have advanced dental abrasion. This suggests a diet of soft foods, such as those the remains of which have been found in the rooms, including lentils, peas, and acorns. Additionally tubers of water reeds, Scirpus, could have been consumed. Wheat, if eaten must have been in the form of 'burgul', not bread which has to be masticated and is abrasive.

There are few cases of dental caries, indicating that refined starches, cooked cereals, probably were not available. The few caries include several on the occlusal surface - a phenomenon related to the low abrasion rate.

Periodontal disease is uncommon and lateral abscesses were noted in only two individuals. The food seems to have been consumed in a self cleansing form - large particles and non-glutenous - fruit, nuts, lentils, meat. The generally low levels of calculus fit this impression that food was self cleansing.

A number of individuals with crowding of the anterior teeth would have developed this condition as a consequence of the generally soft food. Generally though there is a surprising lack of dental crowding given the presumed soft nature of the diet.

The diet appears to have been adequate and there are no cases of deficiency disease, although cortical thickness in some children was very thin. General undernutrition is not easy to detect except through evidence for failure to attain expected height at a given (dental) age.

Cause of death

The very high proportion of juveniles in the sample implies a high mortality rate even for young infants, presumably still being suckled.

Epidemics of infectious disease are a possibility, wiping out whole families or returning year after year. Plague, malaria, enteric dysentery are possibilities. The habitual cleanliness of the house would have controlled infection.

The large male, 1466, buried without a head, appears to have been hanged in such a way that he was decapitated, probably before death but possibly after death. It is important to note that the first cervical vertebra and the odontoid peg of the second cervical are missing, while the hyoid and one branch of the cricoid are present. The remaining cervical vertebrae are in full articulation.